For neorealists, the relative material capabilities of states determine hierarchy and power in international relations. This approach challenged the rationalism and positivism of neorealism and neoliberalism. (Eds.). Realist international relations theory and the military. This is particularly relevant to military studies in terms of understanding the strategic culture of specific states: culture can have an important influence on how states see security, how they interpret threat and train and organize their military forces. Empirically oriented constructivists worked to show that shared ideas about appropriate state behavior had a significant impact on the nature and functioning of world politics. 124). Norms are shared beliefs, knowledge, and practice about the world in this sense, they are intersubjective, meaning a norm can be understood and shared amongst actors. Constructivism focuses on Norms, Ideas, and behaviors in order to understand how IR works and why people do what they do. Rather than see security and conflict in the same way, actors will interpret and pursue security based on the ideas, norms, identities, and values that have meaning for them. Constructivism had been marginalized by these mainstream theories because it focused on social construction instead of material construction (Barkin, 2017). (Ed.). Violation of the Geneva Conventions constitutes a war crime. 1516). They consider that actors can stand outside a normative structure to consider options. The construction of social reality. Ideas do not float freely: Transnational coalitions, domestic structures, and the end of the cold war. After making the case that norms matter and developing a number of theoretical frameworks to show how norms emerge, spread, and influence behavior, norms-oriented constructivists have shifted their attention to a new set of questions, and in particular compliance with the strictures of social norms and change in norms themselves. Norm contestation during the US War on Terror. Early empirical approaches did engage with normative dynamics and change (e.g., Finnemore and Sikkink 1998), but the understanding of dynamics and change was relatively circumscribed. Zehfuss, M. (2002). On the contrary, discursive interventions contribute to challenging the meaning of norms and subsequently actors are likely to reverse previously supported political positions. The current norm contestation literature explores processes through which actors come to understand shared norms differently, contest each others understandings, and how the contestation alters/reifies the norms that constitute a community of norm acceptors together (Hoffmann 2005; Van Kersbergen and Verbeek 2007; Chwieroth 2008; Sandholtz 2008). Adler, E. (1997). Adler, E., & Barnett, M. States interactions are socially constructed. Nonetheless, constructivist approaches to identity, norms, and ideas about the world and its social relations can impact understandings of what it means to be secure. Hagstrm, L., & Gustafsson, K. (2015). Searle, J. R. (1995). In other words, actors can never significantly remove themselves from their social structure to make independent judgments. (3) state identities and interests are in important part constructed . This is akin to what Krebs and Jackson (2007:434) describe as implication contests where actors agree on the nature of an issue, but not the policy implications and framing contests where there is fundamental disagreement about the situation at hand. Springer, Cham. His refusal to allow the UN weapons inspectors into Iraq during the buildup to war in 2003 was seen as irrational to many in the west. "It's refreshing to see the authors address the pedagogy of English language learners within a non-deficit model. forthcoming). It is especially relevant and pertinent as a tool of criticism of widely held empirical and normative theories. International Relations: Constructivism pt1 1. McCourt, D. (2016). The work of Cortell and Davis (2005) and Acharya (2004) are relevant examples of this type of compliance research. This also goes to the foundation of questions of the causes of war. For decades, the theory of International Relations was dominated by two approaches: realism and liberalism. This paper's argument begins by assuming that constructivism is a contested concept. The link was not copied. All of this came about through processes of socialization and persuasion, where interested groups such as NGOs, epistemic communities, and other actors not only successfully changed the norm around the treatment of civilians and combatants in warfare but instigated this norm as part of identity, and how states define right behavior. Holding social norms relatively constant in order to do this was deemed an acceptable trade-off. Rationalist critiques relate to constructivist methodology and epistemological claims. Constructivism relies in part on the theory of the social construction of reality, which says that whatever reality is perceived to be, for the . Special issue. Identities are also constructed. A similar concern motivated Risse (2000) to draw on Habermass work with communicative action and propose a new behavioral logic that would inject agency and more purposive reflection into the process of social construction. Altmetric. Constructivism's approach to the subjects of threat, conflict and security in global politics originated from their fundamental emphasis on the social dimensions of international politics, thus it defined them as socially constructed elements in the process of identity formation under the influence of the norms and shared values of society. (2010). Hilde van Meegdenburg argues that in the case of Denmark, the use of PMSCs has been limited because it is not seen to align with Danish values. Even studies of norm emergence tended to treat the norms in question as relatively static one relatively fully formed norm is replaced by a new idea that becomes a norm. The social construction of Swedish neutrality: Challenges to Swedish identity and sovereignty. Constructivism has provided a broader approach to understanding international relations and security beyond rationalist frameworks. Comprised of a series of conventions that go back to 1864, it is now a part of customary international law, so it applies to all states during warfare. Further, constructivists became more cautious about basing their analyses on the logic of appropriateness. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of International Studies, Department of Political Science, University of Toronto Scarborough, Establishing Constructivist Social Norms Research, Contestation from Within a Normative Community, Open Questions for the Current Norms Research, https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.60, Inter-Organizational Relations: Five Theoretical Approaches, Challenges to Traditional International Relations Theory Posed by Environmental Change, The Practice Turn in International Relations Theory. International Politics, 47(1), 125. Katzenstein, P. J. Second, there is a division between what is generally called conventional and critical constructivism (Hopf 1998), largely over questions of state centricity and treatment of identity. When actors follow the logic of arguing, they seek common understandings through discourse and dialogue. WEEK 4 . Bruner (1990) and Piaget (1972) are considered the chief theorists among the cognitive constructivists, while Vygotsky (1978) is the major theorist among the social constructivists. Baylis revision International Relations. States may join military alliances to bandwagon with stronger powers, as realists tell us. Onuf, N. (2013). Lebow, R. (2001). (2008b). PS: Political Science and Politics, 50(1), 7174. The study and practice of international relations has led international relations scholars to suggest different . 317356). This recent research speaks to and is driven by broader questions of conceptualizing the relationship between actors and norms whether actors reason through or about social norms. I also explored the growing body of constructivist . The logic of arguing has inspired the development of significant empirical research (e.g., Muller 2004; Bjola 2005; Leiteritz 2005; Mitzen 2005) and it is the foundation for some approaches to reasoning about social norms (the logic of consequences is also implicated in approaches that consider that actors reason about norms). For philosopher John Searle, language played an equally significant role. Prominent in the initial empirical norms research in this vein were studies that examined how given norms in a particular community diffused to actors outside the community (e.g., Risse-Kappen 1994; Keck and Sikkink 1998; Risse, Ropp, and Sikkink 1999; Checkel 2001; Johnston 2001). Jacobsen (2003:60) recognizes the need to theorize this relationship observing that, constructivists of all stripes seem to agree that it is vital to theorize links between subjective experience and social/institutional structures. The two versions of norm dynamics discussed above posit different conceptions of the intersubjective/subjective relationship, but neither has developed the final answer to this open question. ), Handbook of military sciences (pp. By the end of the 1990s and early 2000s, constructivists were engaging with both the small number of big important things that Waltz (1986:329, cited in Finnemore 1996:1) famously claimed for structural realism and the large number of big important things that other approaches ignored (Finnemore 1996:1). Self-identity and the IR state. A Social Constructivist Interpretation of the Liberal Argument," European Journal of International Relations 1 (December 1995)CrossRef Google Scholar. Instead, constructivism is held together by consensus on broader questions of social process its position on the agent-structure problem and the primacy of the ideational and the intersubjective aspects of social life (for overviews of constructivism see Onuf 1998; Ruggie 1998; Finnemore and Sikkink 2001; Ba and Hoffmann 2003). Steele, B., Gould, H., & Kessler, O. Japan and identity change: Why it matters in international relations. Fierke, K. M., & Wiener, A. It is ideas, according to constructivists, that play a large role in determining how actors act. New York: Columbia University Press. 451497). Germany and Japan, for example, had antimilitaristic strategic cultures after the Second World War which impacted their military engagement and organization (Berger 1996; Hagstrm and Gustafsson 2015). Constructivism is an International Relations (IR) theory. Social norms were conceptualized as aspects of social structure that emerged from the actions and beliefs of actors in specific communities; norms shaped those actions and beliefs by constituting actors identities and interests. CrossRef The initial empirical norms research tended to simplify normative dynamics to facilitate analysis and dialogue with competing perspectives, treating the norms that they analyzed as relatively static entities with relatively specific meanings and strictures. (1999). Agius, C. (2006). Its 1999 Strategic Concept altered the organization from a Cold War alliance to something more akin to Deutschs idea of a security community that was based on common values, norms, and identity, making democracy and human rights central. However, the separation between the two kinds of norms research discussed above may ultimately be artificial. Meanings: socially constructed. In The New Constructivism in International Relations Theory, David McCourt offers a refreshing take on Constructivism by reviewing old, present, and new concepts in Constructivism and connects them pragmatically with methodological examples.Moreover, this book functions as a handbook on 'how to constructivist' in an era defined and dominated by new advances in computational social science. Yet, Wittgenstein's notion of family resemblances helps in understanding why an essence of constructivism need not be found. John Dewey (1933/1998) is often cited as the philosophical founder of this approach. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Wendt, A. Epistemic communities are described by Peter Haas as networks of knowledge-based communities with an authoritative claim to policy-relevant knowledge within their domain of expertise. They share intersubjective knowledge and beliefs and a common policy enterprise, tackling specific problems in relation to their professions (2016, p. 5) to push for norm change around nuclear proliferation and to reduce the arsenal of the superpowers. Conformance how social norms as intersubjective objects stabilize expectations and even bound what is considered to be possible (Yee 1996) was a crucial area for constructivists because without evidence of conformance with the strictures of social norms, constructivists could not demonstrate that norms mattered. 1820; see also Katzenstein 1996). Wendt, A. Erskine, T. (2012). How is it that western states like the UK, for example, do not fear thousands of nuclear weapons that the USA possesses, but worries about states like Iran or North Korea, who hold far fewer nuclear weapons? This suggests that there is something beyond the timeless wisdom of realism that offers only a tragic view of world politics that will never change. The promise of constructivism in international relations theory. This analytic move facilitated conversation and competition with rational/material theoretical competitors. After all, these were Cold War institutions whose purpose was now over with the end of superpower politics. Constructivism argues that culture, social structures and human institutional frameworks matter. What is the main argument of constructivism? (2002). Abstract: The history of social constructivism in International Relations (IR) is marked by cognitive change and continuity. Third, critical scholars argue that constructivism is deeply flawed because it is apolitical, does not adequately analyze categories such as norms, or simply resurrects rationalist ideas. This has implications for the concept of anarchy, the agent-structure relationship, and national interests, but all three of these areas of research are also approachable through non-constructivist means. These studies were inclined to treat social norms as independent variables and show how some political behavior is made possible or constrained by such ideational factors (e.g., Barkin and Cronin 1994; Klotz 1995; Finnemore 1996, 2003; Katzenstein 1996; Legro 1996; Price 1997; Tannenwald 1999). International Organization, 48(2), 185214. ), Routledge handbook of private security studies (pp. Two have become particularly prominent compliance with the strictures of social norms and change in norms themselves. 394395). While realists would argue that decision to go to war are based on rational state interests, constructivists would argue that the Geneva Convention represents the idea that war is a social and cultural practice and driven by moral considerations. (One of the foundational texts that covers chapters on security and strategic culture, albeit from a mainly conventional perspective). van Meegdenburg, H. (2019). This has led the constructivist literature away from Keohanes (1988) original vision of a division of labor constructivists provide insight into what the interests are, rational approaches take the analysis from there (Legro 1996). Constructivists discuss questions of identity and belief. European Journal of International Relations, 12(3), 341370. (Eds.). For realists, the material structure of the world matters. He argued: If behavior in the real social world can almost always be located in some of the intermediate spaces between the corners of the triangle, one single metatheoretical orientation will probably not capture it. An unnecessary war. Indeed, norms, identity, and ideas are key factors in constructivist theory. International relations and military sciences. Studies of contestation and norm change have begun to examine diverse issues like organizational change in international financial institutions (Nielson, Tierney, and Weaver 2006; Chwieroth 2008); European integration (Meyer 2005; Van Kersbergen and Verbeek 2007; Dimitrakopoulos 2008); environment (Bailey 2008); election monitoring (Kelley 2008); and security (Kornprobst 2007). Constructivism has developed over the years and it is now possible to speak of it in terms of generations. The first generation is identified in the 1980s, where constructivism focused on agents and structures. Assessing the effects and effectiveness of the Geneva Conventions. Finally, the sociology of the discipline faced by early empirical constructivist studies virtually forced constructivists to adopt a focus on static norms. The use of logic of appropriateness put constructivists in the curious position of having to show that norms, ideas, and identity mattered instead of material interests, which from a constructivist viewpoint is nonsensical. The irreducible core of constructivism for international relations is the recognition that international reality is socially constructed. Sandholtz (2008:121) deems this to be a built-in dynamic of change whereby the ever present gap between general rules and specific situations, as well as the inevitable tension between norms, creates openings for disputes.. Constructivism and the nature of international relations Constructivism efforts to give a better understanding of international relations by its method which is based on social theory. While it is beyond the scope of this chapter to adequately cover these approaches, the Baumann chapter in this volumediscusses securitization; for works on ontological security that speak to international security and aspects of the military, see Mitzen (2006), Krahmann (2018), and Mlksoo (2018).) What was it all about after all? (1992). 4. Our assessments, publications and research spread knowledge, spark enquiry and aid understanding around the world. or alliances (as realists would argue?). Baumann, M. (2022). First, norms are relatively stable if they were not, it would be hard to justify or observe this analytic category. You could not be signed in, please check and try again. As we have seen in chapter 4, various factors can influence a country's interpretation of a convention. New York: Columbia University Press. Their embrace of the constructivist paradigm and its application as a natural teaching and learning response to the specific needs of ELLs is a unique and remarkable contribution to the theoretical and research-based literature on this topic." (1999). Norms were conceptualized as having specific behavioral strictures (a relatively bounded set of appropriate behaviors) that did not change. Rebuttals to constructivist arguments used evidence of behavior that was inconsistent with the specific and unchanging strictures of norms in question to claim that nonconstructivist (usually material or rational) factors must be the driving catalyst of political behavior and outcomes (Shannon 2000). INRODUCTION T O INTERNA TIONAL RELA TION THEO RIES 23/10/2018. For liberals, the belief that liberal ideas such as democracy and the free market are ideas to be shared to make the world a better place suggests a transfer of ideas rather than an exchange of ideas. His (2000:2) logic of arguing is designed to clarify how actors develop a common knowledge and how norms and ideas can have a constitutive effect while retaining the reflection and choice Sending (2002:458) deems necessary for mutual constitution and change. Ontological security in world politics: State identity and the security dilemma. According to constructivism the priority is for social features instead of material. European Security, 27(3), 374392. Other scholars deemed the logic of appropriateness (as well as the logics of consequences and arguing) to be too agentic to fit well with constructivist tenets. Practice theory and relationalism as the new constructivism. While constructivists know that social norms are always being reconstituted in the dynamic interplay of agents and social structures known as mutual constitution, social norms do elicit common behavioral expectations such that they are recognizable as relatively stable shared ideas. (2019), and Kessler and Steele (2016) for recent advanced debates.) In the attempt to understand when and where norms are likely to be efficacious, these authors stake out a position on the reasoning aboutreasoning through norms spectrum. It then turns to a discussion of two directions currently being explored in social norms research and the open questions that remain. Introduction by Finley, John H. New York: Random House. They were aware of and noted the simplifications being made caveating their work with notations about the fluid and inherently contested nature of norms. Two strands of research, on the relations between strategic behaviour and international norms and between rationalism and constructivism, serve as examples of promising research in constructivist international relations theory. General norms must be operationalized or translated into specific actions for specific situations. The market for ontological security. One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman. While arguments remain about constructivisms ontological commitments and efforts to build a bridge between rationalist and reflectivist approaches, its relevance for military studies can be widely seen in terms of how it can broaden thinking about how to see and respond to other actors in terms of security and cooperation. As Johnston (2001:494) clarifies, socialization is aimed at creating membership in a society where the intersubjective understandings of the society become taken for granted. These studies generally began from the perspective of a single, established norm and posited mechanisms (arguing, bargaining, persuading, and learning) for how the community of norm acceptors could be enlarged (Acharya 2004). To construct something is an act which brings into being a subject or object that otherwise would not exist. Birdsall, A. Norms, identity, and their limits: A theoretical reprise. Constructivism is relevant to military studies in numerous ways. Constructivism demonstrates the flexibility and critical stance that characterizes the reflectivist theories by stressing the socially constructed aspect of international realities and highlighting the ever-changing nature of the study of International Relations. Reuters, 2 July. Instead social norms are generic rules that allow agents to behave and get along in a wide range of situations. The ability to apprehend what is going on inside actors heads to understand motivations and interpretations is currently a matter for debate (Cederman and Daase 2003; Jackson 2004; Wendt 2004; Krebs and Jackson 2007) but, that debate notwithstanding, the notion that different actors within the same normative community i.e., a group structured by the same norm(s) could have different and contested understandings of that norm is at the foundation of the recent work on norm contestation. As Farrell tells us, liberals and realists do not agree on what prevents war is it democracy (as liberals would contend?) A key illustration here is the norm of human rights, which is widely accepted by actors (Katzenstein 1996). While early constructivist theorizing proved to be an exciting new avenue for thinking about international relations in the abstract, both constructivists and their critics were eager to see constructivist theory applied empirically. Koschut, S. (2014). The Sandholtz (2008:121) passage quoted above brings together the two types of normative dynamics discussed in this section. Studies of compliance and contestation must grapple with this fundamental characteristic of social norms in a more explicit way moving forward. Cham: Springer. (1951). Constructivists hold that . For March and Olsen, the logic of consequences where agents undertake actions on the basis of rationally calculating the optimal (usually materially) course of action remained an insufficient foundation for theorizing behavior in international relations. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. Another topic that requires further consideration in future research is the relationship between intersubjective and subjective reality. Social Constructivist International Relations and the Military, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02866-4_105-1, Springer Reference Political Science & International Studies, Reference Module Humanities and Social Sciences, Realist International Relations Theory and The Military, International Relations and Military Sciences, Liberal International Relations Theory and The Military, Poststructuralism in International Relations: Discourse and the Military, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-saddam-idUSTRE56113O20090702, https://doi.org/10.1080/23340460.2018.1533385, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Table of Contents; Introduction to Social Constructivism: Rise of Social Constructivism in IR: Constructivism as social theory: Constructivist theories of International Relations: Constructivists also emphasize how domestic norms and values play a role in how states and their militaries approach conflict or understand the causes of conflict. If the meaning of a norm can change or if different communities of actors adhere to different norms (or different versions of a norm), then norm-breaking takes on a different meaning. Constructivism, which reached the shores of IR in the 1980s, describes the dynamic, contingent and culturally based condition of the social world. Ideas about whether actors reason about norms or through norms can be linked to underlying behavioral logics that constructivists have devised and developed since the inception of the approach. Constructing institutional interests: EU and NATO enlargement. The norms-oriented work that followed this initial burst of activity in the 2000s built upon the success that was achieved, but also changed the trajectory of research on social norms in world politics to include broader notions of norm dynamics. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Yet, constructivists are beginning to define their enterprise more independently of competing approaches. Introduction to international relations 98% (51) 3. (1996). This standpoint of Constructivism is contrary to the 'atomized' There is significant overlap with the socialization literature here as the mechanisms by which an idea becomes a norm are not all that different from the mechanisms by which an actor outside a normative community is brought within. New York: M. E. Sharpe. Abstract Social constructivism is not among the most popular theoretical approaches used in forecasting in International Relations. Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, VIC, Australia, You can also search for this author in Scholars such as Adler (2008), Pouliot (2008), and Hopf (2002) found this reflective aspect of the logic of appropriateness to allow for too much independence between agents and structures. Constructivism is a theory of knowledge which argues that humans generate knowledge and meaning through world interactions and ideas. During the First World War, Belgium, driven by a sense of honor, chose to fight Germany even though the Belgians risked and experienced catastrophic consequences (Steele 2008b). New York: Routledge. Trust, collective identity, shared norms, and intersubjective meanings are important for alliances and security communities, helping to ensure collective vision and purpose (Adler and Barnett 1998). 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